Gateway house - User contributions [en]

G8

2010-06-25T10:55:27Z

Webmaster: Created page with 'G8 The G8 is a forum that was created by France in 1975. It consists of France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. The group added Russia i…'

G8

The G8 is a forum that was created by France in 1975. It consists of France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and Canada. The group added Russia in 1997. The forum was created in response to the oil crisis and recession in 1973. The leaders of these countries meet at a summit every year. They aim to boost cooperation over trade and finance, strengthen the global economy, promote peace and democracy and prevent and resolve conflict. G8 members can agree on policies and can set objectives, but compliance with these is voluntary. The presidency rotates between the groups member nations on an annual basis.

The G8 has been criticised for not adequately representing developing countries with growing economies. India and China are not represented, nor are any African or Latin American countries. However, in 2005, a new set of meetings was set up. The meetings included the G5, which was set of developing countries consisting of India, Brazil, China, Mexico and South Africa. These countries were given observer status and allowed to attend the meetings of the G8. However with the G20 growing in prominence, the G5 has been disbanded because the members of the G5 are also members of the G20.

In recent years summits have considered the developing world, global security, Middle East peace and reconstruction in Iraq. The G8 has launched drives to counter disease, including HIV/Aids, and has announced development programmes and debt-relief schemes. Global warming has also been an issue at the G8 summits. In 2001, President Bush underlined his reasons for the rejection of the Kyoto treaty on emissions at the Genoa summit. The issue was revisited in 2007, when leaders agreed on the need to tackle climate change. The G8 will be replaced by the G20 as the main economic council of wealthy nations, due to the growing importance of the economies of the countries in the G20.

S.M Krishna

2010-06-25T10:52:51Z

Webmaster: Created page with ' == S.M Krishna == S.M Krishna is the Indian Minister for External Affairs and a member of the Indian Parliament from Karnataka in the Rajya Sabha. He was the Chief Minster of K…'

== S.M Krishna ==

S.M Krishna is the Indian Minister for External Affairs and a member of the Indian Parliament from Karnataka in the Rajya Sabha. He was the Chief Minster of Karnataka form 1999 to 2004 and the Governor of Maharashtra from 2004 to 2008 and assumed charge as the External Affairs Minister on 23 May 2009.

During his tenure as External Affairs minister, Krishna has sought to improve relations with a number of countries. After the reports of attacks on Indian students in Australia, S.M Krishna met Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2009 and both parties agreed to a multitude of remedial measures that should be undertaken to resolve the issue. On June 3, 2010, Krishna also attended the first Cabinet level India- U.S strategic dialogue with Secretary of State, Hilary Clinton, during which both countries agreed to significantly expand the breadth of their collaboration across a range of areas and to deepen ties. They agreed on a number of issues that included counter terrorism, non proliferation, trade and investment, education and empowerment of women. Minister S.M Krishna met Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2009 and both parties agreed to several remedial measures that were undertaken to resolve the issues.

From June 17-19 2010, S.M Krishna also visited South Korea with a view to strengthen trade and bilateral relations, improve cooperation in the defence sector and explore a civilian nuclear agreement.

Zhou Enlai

2010-06-25T10:51:29Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Zhou Enlai == Zhou Enlai was a leading figure in the People’s Republic of China. When the communists prevailed over the Nationalists in 1949, Zhou became premier of the ne…'

== Zhou Enlai ==

Zhou Enlai was a leading figure in the People’s Republic of China. When the communists prevailed over the Nationalists in 1949, Zhou became premier of the new People's Republic of China. He was also the Chinese foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. Zhou was responsible for all of communist China's foreign policy through most of the Cold War and much of the PRC's domestic policy as well. He advocated peaceful co-existence with the West after the Sino-Soviet split in 1966. He was responsible for orchestrating President Nixon’s visit to China in 1972, during which time Nixon signed the [[Shanghai Communiqué]] with Premier Zhou Enlai. The communiqué was a statement of their foreign policy views and a document that would remain the basis of Sino-American bilateral relations for many years. The communiqué was a statement of their foreign policy views and a document that would remain the basis of Sino-American bilateral relations for many years. Kissinger also stated that the U.S. would pull its forces out of Taiwan and supported the notion of One China. Both nations also pledged to work toward the full normalization of diplomatic relations. This was the first step in setting of the foundation of China- U.S relations in the years to come.

Zhou Enlai was an important figure in relations between India and China. The P.R.C viewed Tibet as an integral part of China and therefore invaded it in 1951. In order to maintain friendly relations with China, Nehru signed the [[Panchsheel]] or the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence with Zhou Enlai in 1954. Following the Tibetan uprising in 1959, the Dalai Lama, together with a group of Tibetan leaders fled to India and set up the Government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala. Beijing and the Government-in-exile disagreed over when Tibet became a part of China, and whether the incorporation of Tibet into China was legitimate according to international law. In 1959, Zhou Enlai wrote to then Prime Minister Nehru saying that no government in China had accepted the [[McMahon Line]], which at the Simla convention in 1914 had been formulated to define the eastern section of the border between India and Tibet. Disagreement and skirmishes over the disputed territory increased, particularly over the Aksai Chin area, ultimately leading to the Sino- Indian war in 1962. India’s relations with China worsened after the war, while Sino- U.S and Sino- Pak relations improved.

G5 and G20

2010-06-25T10:19:00Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== G5 and G20 == The G5 consists of India, China, South Africa, Brazil and Mexico. It was a U.S backed European initiative and was formed to give more representation to developi…'

== G5 and G20 ==

The G5 consists of India, China, South Africa, Brazil and Mexico. It was a U.S backed European initiative and was formed to give more representation to developing countries. These countries were called as guests to G8 meetings and it was understood that this process would ultimately result in the [[G8]] expanding to a G13. However, the global economic crisis that shrunk the growth of developed nations, powered the G20 into prominence and the consequently the G5 was discontinued. The G20 is crucial due to the growing importance of the economies of its member nations such as India, China, Brazil and South Africa.

The G20 was established as a finance ministers’ grouping in 1999, in response, mainly, to the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98. In particular, the G20 London summit of April 2009 is widely viewed as a success in terms of concrete agreements, including the expansion of IMF (international Monetary Fund) resources, a $250 billion fresh allocation of SDRs (Special Drawing Rights) and the inclusion of G20 countries in the freshly mandated Financial Stability Board (earlier Forum). Perhaps equally important, developing country leaders found the G20 summit meetings much more participatory and equal than G8+ summits.

Recently, the Finance Ministers of the G20 countries met in South Korea, three weeks before the G20 summit that is scheduled this year (2010). The ministers backed Indian Finance Minister, [[Pranab Mukherjee]]’s proposal to regulate banks instead of imposing a tax to fund future bailouts. Increasing environmental concerns might also play out better at the G20 summit with the participation of China, India and Brazil, countries that are largely responsible for growing number of emissions.

Communist Party of India

2010-06-25T10:07:22Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Communist Party of India == The Communist Party of India (CPI) is one of the political parties in India. It was founded in December, 1925. After independence the party led ar…'

== Communist Party of India ==

The Communist Party of India (CPI) is one of the political parties in India. It was founded in December, 1925. After independence the party led armed struggles against a series of local monarchs that were reluctant to give up their power in several areas, the biggest rebellion being against the Nizam of Hyderabad. The party was divided in 1964 when the Communist Party of India (Marxist) was formed due to ideological disputes within the factions of the party.

Currently, the party is part of the Left Front which is a coalition of leftist and communist parties. The Left Front supported the Indian National Congress led United Progressive Alliance, that came to power in 2004, without directly taking part in it. Its support was based on the UPA’s adherence to the Common Minimum Programme. Some of provisions of the programme were the adoption of an independent foreign policy, massive social sector outlays and the discontinuation of disinvestments. However, the Communist Party of India along with the Left Front withdrew support from the UPA government in July2008 as it was opposed to the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act. It thought that signing such a treaty with the United States would undermine India's sovereignity.

The CPI participates in the Left Front-government in West Bengal. In Kerala the party is part of Left Democratic Front, and has ministers in the state government. In Tripura the party is a partner of the governing Left Front, and in Tamil Nadu it is part of the Progressive Democratic Alliance.

Liaquat Ali Khan

2010-06-25T09:53:00Z

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== Liaquat Ali Khan ==

Liaquat Ali Khan became the First Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1947. He was a member of the Muslim league and was Jinnah’s right hand man. Liaquat assisted Jinnah in campaigning for the creation of a separate state for Indian Muslims and in 1947 the British raj was divided into modern day Indian and Pakistan. After independence, India and Pakistan came into conflict over [[Kashmir]]. During his tenure, India and Pakistan agreed to resolve the dispute of Kashmir in a peaceful manner through the efforts of the United Nations. According to this agreement a ceasefire was put in effect in Kashmir on January 1, 1949. It was decided that a free and impartial plebiscite would be held under the supervision of the UN.

After Jinnah’s death, the problem of religious minorities increased during late 1949 and early 1950 and there were many brutal killings by the majority community in both nations. It was feared that India and Pakistan were about to fight their second war in the first three years of their independence. At this time, Khan met Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and signed the Liaquat-Nehru Pact in 1950. Its aim was to alleviate the fears of religious minorities on both sides, elevate communal peace and create an atmosphere in which the two countries could resolve their other differences.

In May 1950 Liaquat also visited the United States after being convinced to snap ties with the Soviet Union, setting the course of Pakistan’s foreign policy towards closer ties with the West. This was met with adverse criticism as it was considered a rebuff to Moscow. This had negative consequences which have been traced to Soviet help to India, most prominently in the 1971 war that lead to the separation of Bangladesh.

Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated on 16 October, 1951 by Said Akbar who was an Afghan national.

India-South Africa relations

2010-06-25T09:49:23Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India-South Africa relations == Relations with South Africa have been growing stronger after the end of apartheid in South Africa in 1994. Both countries share strong economi…'

== India-South Africa relations ==

Relations with South Africa have been growing stronger after the end of apartheid in South Africa in 1994. Both countries share strong economic and political ties and have an extensive energy partnership. In 2010, India imported 1.4 million tonnes of South African coal making it the largest purchaser of coal from the country. South Africa is also part of IBSA- a forum consisting of India, Brazil and South Africa that was created to help enhance co-operation and exchange.

Prime Minister of India, [[Manmohan Singh]] and Prime Minister of South Africa [[Jacob Zuma]] succeeded in imparting a ‘forward looking’ character to India- South Africa relations on June 4th, 2010, during a comprehensive dialogue in Delhi. During the dialogue, both countries agreed to step up efforts to reform institutions of global governance, especially the U.N Security Council. They have cooperated on climate change, countering terrorism, WTO negotiations and have agreed to support each other’s candidature for a non permanent seat in the Security Council, 2011-2012. The three agreements that were signed were on civil aviation, agriculture and cooperation between diplomatic academies. Also both governments made promises regarding the India-South Africa Customs Union preferential trade agreement on protection and promotion of investments.

Khwaja Ahmed Abbas

2010-06-25T09:45:27Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Khwaja Ahmed Abbas == Khwaja Ahmed Abbas was an Indian film director, novelist, screenwriter, and a journalist in the Urdu, Hindi and Englsih languages. He was the maker of …'

== Khwaja Ahmed Abbas ==

Khwaja Ahmed Abbas was an Indian film director, novelist, screenwriter, and a journalist in the Urdu, Hindi and Englsih languages. He was the maker of important Hindi films like, ‘Saat Hindustani’, ‘Shehar aur Sapna’, and ‘Palme D'Or.’ His film Neecha Nagar was the winner at the Cannes Film festival. He was a screenwriter for many of Raj Kapoor’s films. Khwaja Ahmad Abbas is considered one of pioneers of Indian parallel or neo-realistic cinema, having penned films like ‘Neecha Nagar’, ‘Jagte Raho’, ‘Dharti Ke Lal’, ‘Awaara’, ‘Saat Hindustani’ and ‘Naya Sansar.’ He was also a novelist and wrote over seventy three books in Urdu, Hindi and English. He also interviewed several renowned personalities in literary and non-literary fields, including the Russian Prime Minister Khrushchov, American President Roosevelt, Charlie Chaplin, Mao-Tse-Tung and Yuri Gagarin. He won the Padma Shri in 1969.

Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China

2010-06-25T09:41:52Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China == Relations between India and China worsened during the 1960s and 1970s, following the border issue that led to the India- China war of 1962…'

== Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China ==

Relations between India and China worsened during the 1960s and 1970s, following the border issue that led to the India- China war of 1962. Chinese-Pakistani relations improved, with China backing Pakistan in its 1965 war with India. Chinese-Soviet relations were also worsening at the time. India signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1971. The United States and China sided with Pakistan in its war with India in the same year.

Efforts to renew relations emerged after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In the 1980s, there were eight rounds of border negotiations between India and China, though they achieved nothing given the charges exchanged between the countries of military encroachment on the eastern side of the border. [[Rajiv Gandhi]]'s visit to China in December 1988, helped normalise relations between the two nations. The two sides issued a joint communiqué that stressed the need to restore friendly relations on the basis of the Panch Shila that had been signed in 1954. India and China agreed to broaden bilateral ties in various areas, working to achieve a "fair and reasonable settlement while seeking a mutually acceptable solution" to the border dispute. The communiqué also expressed China's concern about agitation by Tibetan separatists in India and reiterated China's position that Tibet was an integral part of China.

Rajiv Gandhi signed bilateral agreements on science and technology cooperation, on civil aviation to establish direct air links, and on cultural exchanges between the two countries. The two sides also agreed to hold annual diplomatic consultations between foreign ministers, and to set up a joint ministerial committee on economic and scientific cooperation and a joint working group on the boundary issue.

After Gandhi's visit to China, high level visits at and above ministerial level between the two countries increased significantly, and the bilateral exchanges in various fields expanded quickly.

http://countrystudies.us/india/129.htm

Nixon's visit to China

2010-06-25T09:38:34Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Nixon’s visit to China in 1972 == Sino-American relations were hostile during the 1950s, due to the Korean War as well as the continuing U.S military aid to Taiwan. In the…'

== Nixon’s visit to China in 1972 ==

Sino-American relations were hostile during the 1950s, due to the Korean War as well as the continuing U.S military aid to Taiwan. In the 1960s U.S involvement in the Vietnam War and China's isolationist posture and militancy during the Cultural Revolution did not do much to improve relations. However, after the Sino-Soviet split in 1966, China saw the Soviet Union as more threatening than the United States and therefore sought to establish closer relations with it. President Nixon also wanted to explore rapprochement with China as part of his doctrine of reduced military involvement in Asia and so in 1972, he visited China, during which time he signed the Shanghai Communique with Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]. The communiqué was a statement of their foreign policy views and a document that would remain the basis of Sino-American bilateral relations for many years. Kissinger also stated that the U.S. would pull its forces out of Taiwan and supported the notion of One China. Both nations pledged to work toward the full normalization of diplomatic relations.

The Shanghai Communique, included a certain degree of ambiguity that allowed China and the United States to set aside differences, especially concerning the Taiwan issue and to begin the process of normalizing relations. After the signing of the Shanghai Communique, however, movement toward United States-China normalization during the 1970s saw only limited progress. The United States and China set up liaison offices in each other's capitals in 1973, and bilateral trade grew unevenly. The United States continued to maintain official relations with the government of the Republic of China in Taiwan until 1979 when the U.S. broke off relations with it and established full diplomatic relations with the P.R.C. Relations continued to develop in the 1980s and by the second half of the 1980s, China had become the sixteenth largest trading partner of the United States.

http://countrystudies.us/china/129.htm

Jairam Ramesh

2010-06-25T09:36:36Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Jairam Ramesh == Jairam Ramesh has been an elected member of the Indian Parliament representing Andhra Pradesh in the Rajya Sabha since June 2004.…'

== Jairam Ramesh ==

Jairam Ramesh has been an elected member of the Indian Parliament representing Andhra Pradesh in the Rajya Sabha since June 2004. He has been the Indian Minister of State for Environment and Forests since May, 2009. His policy includes tightening fuel efficiency standards, setting voluntary targets to improve energy efficiency, pushing ahead with solar power and expanding the use of clean-coal technology in power plants. He also focuses on expanding forest cover, expanding technological cooperation and extending a treaty program that will encourage investment in clean technologies.

He was chief negotiator for India at the United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Copenhagen, in December, 2009. He won his battle on India’s stand at the climate change negotiations, forcing a shift from a per capita emissions position to an emissions intensity of GDP position. In doing so he outmanoeuvred Shyam Saran, the envoy to the Prime minster on climate change who subsequently left government.

He was criticised for saying that the Home Ministry's policies were threatening to derail the post-Copenhagen warming of ties between India and China at a Climate Change conference in Beijing. He suggested that the Home Ministry needed to be much more relaxed in its approach to Chinese investments in India as it was too ‘alarmist’ and ‘overly defensive’ in its approach. Objecting to his comments, top officials of the Home Ministry said it was “wrong to say that the security establishment was biased against Chinese companies.” PM [[Manmohan Singh]] also rebuked the Environment Minister and advised him against commenting on other ministries.''

http://beta.thehindu.com/news/national/article426126.ece
http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-curious-case-of-jairam-ramesh/619169/4

Swadeshi

2010-06-25T07:59:21Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Swadeshi == The Swadeshi (self sufficiency) movement was part of the Indian independence movement. The movement arose during a time in which India was just beginning to reali…'

== Swadeshi ==

The Swadeshi (self sufficiency) movement was part of the Indian independence movement. The movement arose during a time in which India was just beginning to realise Britain’s economic exploitation of India. It originated in Bengal as a protest movement against the ill-conceived partition of the province in 1905. However it also spread to various parts of India. The movement gave tremendous inputs to Indian industry and salt, sugar and matches were some of the products that started being manufactured. Jamshedji Tata also opened his steel plant in Bihar. Leaders of the movement included Aurobindo Ghosh, Veer Savarkar, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai..

The movement paved the way for Gandhian Non-Co-operation and civil disobedience. Swadeshi, as a strategy, was a key focus of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] who described it as the soul of "Swaraj" (self rule). Swadeshi was a call for only Indian products to be bought and sold in India. Gandhi encouraged small village businesses and wanted to boycott anything made with British machines or in British factories. Instead, Gandhi urged everyone to become self reliant and begin making their own goods. By practicing Swadeshi, Indians would be able to weaken the British industry and learn how to become economically independent. The concept of Swadeshi remains an important one for India, in light of increasing globalisation in today’s world.

India-Bhutan relations

2010-06-25T07:54:07Z

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== Bhutan- India relations ==

The bilateral relations between Bhutan and India have been close. Bhutan became a protectorate of British India after signing a treaty in 1910 that gave the British power to "guide" its foreign affairs and defence. In 1947, Bhutan was one of the first countries to recognise India’s independence and in 1949 both countries signed the Treaty of Friendship. The treaty called for peace between the two countries and assured Indian non interference in Bhutan's internal affairs in return for Bhutan agreeing to be guided by the advice of the Government of India, in regard to its external relations. The treaty also guaranteed free trade between the countries and duty-free transit for Bhutan's imports across India. Furthermore, the treaty assured the rights of citizens of each country and the extradition of criminals seeking refuge in either country.

The Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1951 affected India-Bhutan relations. Bhutan sided with India when the Chinese army occupied Tibet in 1959 and during the border dispute between China and India. China had also occupied eight western Tibetan enclaves under Bhutanese administration. In 1959, Nehru even declared in the Indian parliament that any aggression against Bhutan would be regarded as an aggression against India. Until the 1970s, India represented Bhutan's concerns in talks with China over the broader Sino-Indian border conflicts. India was also quick to assure Bhutan military assistance in the [[Sino- Indian War]] of 1962 and Indian aid increasingly bolstered Bhutan’s strategic infrastructure development. Bhutanese authorities also permitted Indian troop movements through Bhutanese territory. However, India's defeat in the war raised concerns about India's ability to defend Bhutan. Bhutan was also concerned by the Indo- Pak 1971 war, where it doubted India’s ability to protect Bhutan against China who was siding with Pakistan.

Until 1971, the Treaty of Friendship guided relations between Bhutan and India. However, the Bhutanese government had expressed desire to renegotiate the treaty to enhance Bhutanese sovereignty. Bhutan’s foreign policy took a turn when it joined the United Nations in 1971.Bhutan exerted its independent stance at the Non-Aligned Movement summit conference in Havana, in 1979, by voting with China and some Southeast Asian countries rather than with India on the issue of allowing Cambodia's Khmer Rouge to be seated at the conference. Bhutan's votes in the UN on such issues as the status of landlocked nations also did not follow India's leads.Also it wasn’t till 1973 that detailed demarcations of the India-Bhutanese border were made

In 2007, India renegotiated the 1949 treaty with Bhutan and signed a new treaty of friendship. The new treaty replaced the provision requiring Bhutan to take India's guidance on foreign policy, with broader sovereignty. It also does not require Bhutan to obtain India's permission to import arms. In 2008, Indian Prime Minister Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]] visited Bhutan and expressed strong support for Bhutan's move towards democracy.

India-Myanmar Relations

2010-06-25T07:47:38Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Burma (Myanmar)- India relations == India established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were…'

== Burma (Myanmar)- India relations ==

India established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong. Both countries shared cultural links, flourishing commercial ties and common interests in regional affairs. There was also a presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.

India also provided considerable support to Burma when it was struggling with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma in 1962 led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and gave its support to the pro democracy movement which was led by Aung San Suu Kyi. China was one of the few countries that retained close links with Burma.

By 1993, the movement for democracy was not making much progress and the military regime was going ahead with making peace with ethnic minorities. There was little possibility of the military regime relinquishing power to the National League for Democracy. In the absence of dialogue with the Myanmar military, insurgency and narcotics smuggling were assuming alarming proportions in the states bordering Myanmar. Myanmar is strategically very important for both India and China due to its location and large natural gas reserves. China also began stepping up its strategic engagement with the Myanmar military junta. During the tenure of [[P.V Narasimha Rao]] as Prime Minister, India appeared to have taken account that giving too much weight to human rights and democracy in Myanmar over strategic considerations may not be in its long term interests., India moved to forge closer relations with Myanmar to counter China’s growing influence as a regional leader and to increase its own influence

India was also slow to react to the 2007 anti government protests. It declared that it had no intention of interfering in Burma's internal affairs and that the Burmese people would have to achieve democracy themselves. India’s low-key response has been widely criticised both within India and abroad and has weakened India's credentials as a responsible democratic nation.

Panchsheel

2010-06-25T07:41:45Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Panchsheel == The Panchsheel Agreement was signed in April 1954, between India and the People’s Republic of China. The five principles of the agreement were to form the bas…'

== Panchsheel ==

The Panchsheel Agreement was signed in April 1954, between India and the People’s Republic of China. The five principles of the agreement were to form the basis of the relationship between India and China. The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949 and the Chinese army invaded Tibet in 1951 as Mao thought that it was an integral part of the Chinese State. China saw Indian concern over Tibet as interference in the affairs of China. To avoid antagonizing the People's Republic of China, Nehru informed Chinese leaders that India did not have political or territorial ambitions in Tibet. Tibet had been a geographical and physical buffer zone. With the invasion of Tibet by China, Nehru concluded that India’s best guarantee of security was to establish a ‘psychological’ buffer zone in the place of the physical buffer and this was the reason that the Panchsheel agreement was signed.

The Five Principles were mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non aggression, mutual non interference in each other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence.

The principles of the agreement were important because they were the basis of many other international documents. They form the basis of the [[Non Aligned Movement]] which is intergovernmental organization of states that considered themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. The Panchsheel Agreement also formed the basis of the ten point declaration that was signed at the Asian African Conference in 1955. The conference's aims were to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neo-colonialism by the United States, the Soviet Union, or any other imperialistic nation. The conference was an important step toward the crystallization of the Non-Aligned Movement. The principles have also become the norms for relations between many countries.

Indira Gandhi

2010-06-25T07:35:22Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Indira Gandhi == Indira Gandhi, daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, was the first woman Prime Minister of India and served for three consecutive terms, from 1966 to 1977 and for a …'

== Indira Gandhi ==

Indira Gandhi, daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, was the first woman Prime Minister of India and served for three consecutive terms, from 1966 to 1977 and for a fourth term from 1980, until her assassination in 1984. She was elected Prime Minister of India in 1966, after the death of Lal Bahadur Shashtri who had then been serving as the Prime Minister of India. Also,in 1966, the Congress became divided into two factions- the socialists, headed by Indira Gandhi and the conservatives, headed by Morarji Desai. The internal conflicts showed in 1967, when despite winning the general elections, the Congress lost nearly 60 seats in the Lok Sabha. Finally, in 1969 after many disagreements with Desai, the Indian National Congress split.

Indira Gandhi remained Prime Minister of India and was supported by Socialist and Communist Parties for the next two years (1969-71). During this time, the party took a radical left turn as Indira nationalized banks and insurance companies. She provided support for the Green Revolution that was introduced to provide new varieties of seeds and abundant grain and fertiliser to farmers. The Green Revolution reversed India’s food shortages and resulted in surplus production of wheat, rice, cotton and milk. Indira Gandhi wanted India to become an exporter of agricultural products and wanted India to stop having to rely on U.S aid. Indira Gandhi also started a national nuclear program in 1967, in response to nuclear threat from the People’s Republic of China and in 1974; India tested its first nuclear weapon in Pokhran, Rajasthan.

Indira’s government faced major problems in 1971, due to the internal conflicts within the Congress Party. It was therefore entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Her slogan of eradicating poverty projected her as a national leader and undermined opposition to her within the party as it gave her an independent national support based on the rural and urban poor. Consequently, she won the 1971 general elections. However only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs that were put forth by Gandhi.

Indira Gandhi was also responsible for successfully executing the war between India and Pakistan in 1971, after the Pakistan army conducted widespread atrocities against the civilian populations of East Pakistan. The United States supported Pakistan and even tried to pass a U.N resolution warning India against going to war. However, India signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union, thereby establishing ties with it. Consequently, the Soviet Union was able to veto the resolution as it was a permanent member of the Security Council. Over the next few years, relations between India and the Soviet Union grew closer, while India’s relations with the United States grew distant. India was successful in the war and Bangladesh was created in 1971. In 1972, she signed the Simla agreement with Pakistan bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means.

In 1975, she was found guilty of using illegal election practices during her campaign in 1971. Instead of resigning, she imposed a state of [[Emergency]] and proceeded to arrest all the opposition leaders. The Emergency was revoked in 1977 and Indira Gandhi lost to the [[Janata Party]] in the general elections. However in 1980, she was elected Prime Minster once again. During this time she visited both the United States and the USSR, in efforts to portray India’s non alliance to either bloc. She also dismissed the Akali Dal (Sikh party) led state government in Punjab, which led to widespread military resistance.Resentment continued to fester and even led to Indira Gandhi’s assassination in 1984.

India-Bangladeshi border conflict

2010-06-25T07:26:40Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India- Bangladeshi border conflict == The 2001 Indian- Bangladeshi border conflict occurred because of the poorly marked international border between the two countries. The …'

== India- Bangladeshi border conflict ==

The 2001 Indian- Bangladeshi border conflict occurred because of the poorly marked international border between the two countries. The Partition of Bengal in 1947, left a poorly demarcated international border between India and Bangladesh (then East Pakistan). Ownership of several villages on both sides of the de facto border were disputed and claimed by both countries. One of the disputed areas was a small sliver of land near the village of Pyrdiwah. The Indian Border Security Force (BSF) had occupied it since the 1971 liberation of Bangladesh. However, Bangladesh claimed that the village was within its territory and in 2001 the Bangladeshi Army attacked the settlements under the Border Security force. Consequently, fighting between the Indian Border Security Force and the 19th division of the Bangladeshi army lasted three days, from April 16- 19. Nevertheless Indian forces managed to retake the settlements.

After the incident, there was increasing tension about whether the conflict would escalate. On April 22, 2001, the then Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina spoke to then Prime Minister of India, [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]], and agreed to order a high-level investigation into the incident. India and Bangladesh also agreed to improve diplomatic channels and exercise restraint in the future. By July 2001, the two sides had established joint working groups to establish the un-demarcated sections of the border and both countries are still in the process of constructing the Indo-Bangladeshi barrier.

Pondicherry

2010-06-25T07:23:35Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Pondicherry == Pondicherry is a Union Territory of India and is a former French colony. During the rule of the French in Pondicherry, there were several minor conflicts and b…'

== Pondicherry ==

Pondicherry is a Union Territory of India and is a former French colony. During the rule of the French in Pondicherry, there were several minor conflicts and battles fought between the French and the British to capture Pondicherry. After several conflicts both the countries came to a conclusion and an agreement was signed where Pondicherry was given back to the French by the British.

In the year 1954, Pondicherry was returned back to India by the French. According to the 1956 Traité de cession, the former French colonies were assured of maintaining their special administrative status. Consequently, apart from Delhi, Pondicherry is the only Union Territory which is entitled by special constitutional amendments to have an elected legislative assembly and a cabinet of ministers, thereby enjoying partial statehood powers. Under the special provision, the government is permitted to make laws with respect to specific matters. In many cases, such legislations may require the ratification from the federal government or the assent of the President of India.

The official languages of Pondicherry are Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam and French and it is one of the most popular tourist destinations in South India.

Rajiv gandhi

2010-06-25T07:22:32Z

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== Rajiv Gandhi ==

Rajiv Gandhi was the Prime Minister of India from 1984 to 1989. He became Prime Minister, following his mother and former Primer Minister, Indira Gandhi’s assassination.

Rajiv Gandhi adopted policies that were significantly different from Indira Gandhi's socialist economic policies. He improved bilateral relations with the United States and expanded economic and scientific cooperation. He increased government support for science and technology and associated industries, and reduced import quotas, taxes and tariffs on technology-based industries, especially computers, airlines, defence and telecommunications. He worked towards reducing the red tape in the government and towards freeing administration from bureaucratic tangles. In 1986, he announced a national education policy to modernize and expand higher education programs across India.

In 1987, Rajiv Gandhi formed the Indian Peace Keeping Force was formed to end the Sri Lankan Civil War between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the Sri Lankan military. The [[India-Sri Lanka Accord]] that awarded a degree of regional autonomy to the Tamil people was also signed, though it was rejected by the [[LTTE]], leading to more conflict. Opposition parties of Sri Lanka and as well as LTTE, opposed the acts of the military contingent. However, Rajiv Gandhi refused to withdraw the IPKF. One of the other achievements of his governance was that he managed to authorize an extensive police and Army campaign to contain terrorism in Punjab. Punjab was facing many problems at the time due to the fact that the Sikh militants in the state were demanding the creation of a separate state called Khalistan.

Rajiv Gandhi’s clean image was tarnished after news of his involvement in the Bofors scandal. The scandal involved alleged payoffs by the Swedish Bofors arms company to the government in order to let them supply India with artillery. The scandal rapidly eroded Rajiv Gandhi’s popularity and was one of the reasons for his defeat the 1989 general elections. A coalition government came to power but internal contradictions within the coalition caused the government to collapse. Consequently, general elections were called in 1991. While campaigning for elections in Tamil Nadu, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated on May 21, 1991 by a suicide bomber belonging to LTTE. His wife Sonia Gandhi later joined Indian politics and became the president of the Congress party in 1998.

India Sri Lanka Accord

2010-06-25T07:21:02Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India-Sri Lanka Accord == The India-Sri Lanka accord was signed July 29, 1987, between Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayewardene. The …'

== India-Sri Lanka Accord ==

The India-Sri Lanka accord was signed July 29, 1987, between Indian Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayewardene. The accord was expected to resolve the ongoing Sri Lankan Civil war between Tamil secessionist groups including the [[LTTE]] (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam) and the Sri Lankan Government. The conflict arose when ethnic tamil secessionist groups wanted to create Tamil Ealam, an independent state in the north and east of Sri Lanka as an ethnic homeland for the minority Tamils; In a state in which the majority of the population was Sinhalese. The accord assigned a degree of regional autonomy to the Tamil areas, with the establishment of a regional council that was to be administered by the Eelam People's Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF). Tamil militant groups were also required to lay down their arms and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), which was part of the Indian Army, was sent to Sri Lanka to enforce disarmament and to watch over the regional council. However, Tamil militant groups did not have a role in the formation of the agreement as it was signed between the Sri Lankan and Indian Government.

The LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate who was to administer the regional council. The candidates proposed by the LTTE were rejected by India, stalling the settlement.

The Government of India decided that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force and launched a number of campaigns, including Operation Pawan which attempted to capture Jaffna. The ruthlessness of the Indian intervention, made the Indian army extremely unpopular with not only the Tamils in Sri Lanka, but also the majority Sinhalese population. The IPKF left the country in 1990 on the request of the Sri Lankan government. Fighting continued throughout the 1990s and Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was assassinated by a suicide bomber associated with the LTTE in 1991. In 1993 Sri Lankan president Ranasinghe Premadasa was also assassinated. Relations between India and Sri Lanka became sour due to the conflict. President Mahinda Rajapaksa finally declared military victory over the Tamil Tigers on May 16, 2009 after 26 years of conflict.

Inder Kumar Gujral

2010-06-25T07:13:35Z

Webmaster: Created page with '= Inder Kumar Gujral = Inder Kumar Gujral served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. In the 1980s, he left the Congress party to join the Ja…'

= Inder Kumar Gujral =

Inder Kumar Gujral served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998. In the 1980s, he left the Congress party to join the Janata Dal, a party with socialist leanings and regional bases. During 1996, he was Minister of External Affairs for the United Front which was a coalition of political parties which formed India’s government after the fractured verdict of the elections. He was responsible for the Gujral doctrine during his time as Minister of External Affairs and Prime Minister. The doctrine contains five principles to guide the conduct of foreign relations with India’s immediate neighbours. It states that no country should interfere in internal affairs; all South Asian countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, they should settle disputes through bilateral communications; no South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against another country and that India should not expect reciprocity, but should give to countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan.

He became the Prime Minister of India on April 21, 1997, after the Congress party, which had been supporting the United Front government under Deve Gowda, decided to withdraw support and insisted on a change in leadership if they were to continue to lend their support. During his term as Prime Minister, Gujral also sought to improve relations with Pakistan. Gujral did not contest the 1999 elections and retired from politics.

Indo-US Nuclear Deal

2010-06-25T07:10:14Z

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== India-U.S Nuclear Deal ==

The nuclear deal was first introduced in the joint statement released by then President Bush and then Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] on July 18, 2005. The deal lifts a three-decade U.S. moratorium on nuclear trade with India. The moratorium was imposed after India tested its first nuclear bomb in 1974, even after refusing to sign the Non Proliferation treaty as it thought the treaty was biased and created a club of nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘have nots.’ However, since 2000, the U.S has sought to increase a strategic partnership with India, in order to work together to combat terrorism, and counterbalance China’s rise in the region. The deal provides U.S. assistance to India's civilian nuclear energy program, and expands U.S.-India
cooperation in energy and satellite technology. The deal took more than three years to come to fruition as it had to go through several complex stages, including amendment of U.S. domestic law, a civil-military nuclear Separation Plan in India, an India-IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) safeguards agreement and the grant of an exemption for India by the Nuclear Suppliers Group- an export-control cartel that had been formed mainly in response to India's first nuclear test in 1974. The deal was given final approval in October 2008.

Proponents of the deal pointed to the fact that it would bring India closer to the U.S, it would encourage India to accept international safeguards on facilities it has not allowed to be inspected before, it would recognize India's history of imposing voluntary safeguards on its nuclear program and recognize that it has a good record of non proliferation, even though it has not signed the NPT. India had also voluntarily chosen to abide by the strict export controls on nuclear technology set by the NSG, a group of forty-five nuclear-supplier states that coordinates controls of nuclear exports to non-nuclear-weapon states.

Some of the objections that were raised by experts, were that the safeguards applied only to facilities and material manufactured by India beginning when the agreement was reached. It did not cover the fissile material produced by India over the last several decades of nuclear activity. Also the deal did not require India to limit the number of nuclear weapons it plans to produce, nor does it require India to limit its fissile material production. The deal also faced opposition by political parties and activists in India, who claimed that it would limit India’s sovereignty and hurt its security. The main opposition came from the Left Front that mainly consists of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] and its allies. On July 9, 2008, the Left Front withdrew support to the government thereby reducing its strength to 276 in the Lok Sabha. However, the government survived a confidence vote in the parliament on July 22, 2008 by 275-256 votes. The main opposition party, the BJP was also opposed to the deal and wanted it renegotiated.

There has been speculation over the implications of the deal for the U.S and India’s relations with Pakistan. Pakistan, like India is also not a signatory of the NPT. However, it has not received such a deal with the U.S. Pakistan has warned that the India- U.S deal might start a nuclear weapons’ arms race. Experts worry that the deal could prompt Pakistan to go elsewhere, for example to China for similar terms.

http://www.cfr.org/publication/9663/

India-France Nuclear Deal

2010-06-25T07:04:18Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India- France Nuclear Deal == A nuclear accord was signed between Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and President of France Nicolas Sarkozy in September 2008. France i…'

== India- France Nuclear Deal ==

A nuclear accord was signed between Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] and President of France Nicolas Sarkozy in September 2008. France is the second largest producer of energy after the United States and is a leading exporter of civilian nuclear technology. After Nuclear Suppliers Group lifted the ban that that had previously stopped India from getting access to the global nuclear market, there has been increasing competition to build nuclear power plants in India.

The deal between France and India includes providing India with France's latest model of the European Pressurised Reactor as well as other civilian nuclear material. Supporters of the deal said that more nuclear plants in India could help reduce global demand for oil and gas while at the same time significantly reducing the country's pollution levels. Critics of the deal said it created a dangerous precedent as it allows India to expand its nuclear power industry without requiring it to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as other nations must. However, according to the French Presidency and the Indian government, the deal forms the basis for enlarged bilateral co-operation in the fields of energy and research.

India-Russia Nuclear Deal

2010-06-25T07:02:11Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India-Russia Nuclear Deal == Russian President Medvedev signed a nuclear deal with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in September 2008. The deal followed the landmark Indo- U…'

== India-Russia Nuclear Deal ==

Russian President Medvedev signed a nuclear deal with Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] in September 2008. The deal followed the landmark Indo- U.S nuclear deal that was signed earlier in the year, after the Nuclear Suppliers Group lifted a ban that had prohibited India from getting access to the global nuclear market. Since the ban has been lifted, there has been increasing competition to build nuclear power plants in India as India is looking to increase its energy supply to sustain long term economic growth. Russia is the third country to have signed a nuclear deal with India, the second country being France.
The nuclear deal with Russia was part of a series of deals, including deals on defence and space sales. The deal authorised Russia to build four nuclear energy reactors at Kudankulam in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The civil nuclear pact provides for uninterrupted uranium fuel supplies from Russia even in the event of termination of bilateral ties in this field for any reason. The pact also has provisions for transfer of enrichment and nuclear technology, which is denied in the 123 agreement with the US. The nuclear agreement opened the way for greater cooperation between Russia and India.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6298071.stm

India's relations with the Czech Republic

2010-06-25T06:59:20Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India’s relations with Czech Republic == India has friendly, cordial and cooperative relations with the Czech Republic, which is part of the European Union. The relationsh…'

== India’s relations with Czech Republic ==

India has friendly, cordial and cooperative relations with the Czech Republic, which is part of the European Union. The relationship covers political, economic and commercial fields as well as cooperation in technology and culture exchanges. Bilateral trade between India and the Czech Republic is a little over USD 1 billion. Czech investments in India are in automobile and power sectors, whereas from India, companies from automobiles and IT sectors have made investments in the Czech Republic. The Czech Republic pledged to support India’s bid for a permanent membership in the U.N Security Council on June 7th 2010, during Vice President of India, Hamid Ansari’s visit there. Three agreements were signed, including one on social security that states that citizens working in either country for less than five years will be exempt from social security contributions. Around 700 Indians working in Czech Republic will be protected by this pact. The two other agreements signed were an agreement on economic Cooperation and on a Protocol on Amendment of the Agreement between India and Czech Republic for the Promotion and Protection of Investments that was originally signed on October 11, 1996. Both governments expressed the desire to enhance cooperation especially in science, technology and to strengthen economic and cultural ties.

India- Australia Relations

2010-06-25T06:50:04Z

Webmaster: /* India- Australia relations */

== India-Australia relations ==

India’s relations with Australia date back to when they were both part of the British Empire. They share a history of strong economic, political, cultural and sporting ties. Both countries work together in a number of organisations. They are both part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and are also founding members of the United Nations. They are also members of regional organisations including the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation and [[ASEAN]] (Association of South East Asian Nations) Regional forum. Australia and India have also both welcomed the decision to make the [[G20]] the premier forum for international economic cooperation. Australia supports India’s candidature for becoming a permanent member of a reformed United Nations Security Council and it also attended the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation Summit as an observer in April 2010.

Australia is an important economic partner of India. As of 2007, bilateral trade between the two countries totalled A$10.7 billion, having grown from A$4.3 billion in 2003. Australia mainly exports mined and agricultural goods to India, while India's chief exports are pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, textiles and clothing.

In 2007, the Australian government led by the then Prime Minister John Howard of the Liberal Party agreed in principle to sell uranium to fuel India's nuclear reactors. Howard reversed a previous policy of not selling uranium to non-signatories of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying that it would lessen the burden on fossil fuels and encourage India to join the nuclear mainstream. However the Rudd-led Labour Party government that came to power later that year rescinded the plan and reverted to the previous policy of not selling to non-NPT signatories.

Over 97,000 Indian students enrolled in Australia in 2008, representing an education export of A$2 billion. However relations between Australia and India became strained in 2009 after reports of attacks on Indian students in Australia. High level talks were held between officials of the two governments, Indian External Affairs Minister [[S.M Krishna]] met Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2009 and both parties agreed to a multitude of remedial measures that should be undertaken to resolve the issue.

Prime Minister Rudd recently announced the need to strengthen India- Australia relations and announced that Australia would upgrade its diplomatic resources in India. Subsequently, Australia is enlarging its missions in Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai and is establishing new Austrade offices in a number of other regional cities.

India- Australia Relations

2010-06-25T06:49:02Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== India- Australia relations == India’s relations with Australia date back to when they were both part of the British Empire. They share a history of strong economic, politic…'

== India- Australia relations ==

India’s relations with Australia date back to when they were both part of the British Empire. They share a history of strong economic, political, cultural and sporting ties. Both countries work together in a number of organisations. They are both part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and are also founding members of the United Nations. They are also members of regional organisations including the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation and [[ASEAN]] (Association of South East Asian Nations) Regional forum. Australia and India have also both welcomed the decision to make the [[G20]] the premier forum for international economic cooperation. Australia supports India’s candidature for becoming a permanent member of a reformed United Nations Security Council and it also attended the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation Summit as an observer in April 2010.

Australia is an important economic partner of India. As of 2007, bilateral trade between the two countries totalled A$10.7 billion, having grown from A$4.3 billion in 2003. Australia mainly exports mined and agricultural goods to India, while India's chief exports are pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, textiles and clothing.

In 2007, the Australian government led by the then Prime Minister John Howard of the Liberal Party agreed in principle to sell uranium to fuel India's nuclear reactors. Howard reversed a previous policy of not selling uranium to non-signatories of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying that it would lessen the burden on fossil fuels and encourage India to join the nuclear mainstream. However the Rudd-led Labour Party government that came to power later that year rescinded the plan and reverted to the previous policy of not selling to non-NPT signatories.

Over 97,000 Indian students enrolled in Australia in 2008, representing an education export of A$2 billion. However relations between Australia and India became strained in 2009 after reports of attacks on Indian students in Australia. High level talks were held between officials of the two governments, Indian External Affairs Minister [[S.M Krishna]] met Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in 2009 and both parties agreed to a multitude of remedial measures that should be undertaken to resolve the issue.

Prime Minister Rudd recently announced the need to strengthen India- Australia relations and announced that Australia would upgrade its diplomatic resources in India. Subsequently, Australia is enlarging its missions in Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai and is establishing new Austrade offices in a number of other regional cities.

Non Aligned Movement

2010-06-25T06:39:46Z

Webmaster: /* Non Aligned Movement */

== Non Aligned Movement ==

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an intergovernmental organization of states that consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. Most of the countries that are part of the movement were former colonies that liberated themselves from foreign domination. After independence most found themselves in an international situation dominated by Cold War alliances and the movement was formed primarily to ensure ‘the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries.’ [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was one of the founders of the Non Aligned Movement and formulated its principles with the goal of preserving India's freedom of action internationally, through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union. The principles of the movement are based on the Panchsheel agreement, signed between India and China in 1954 and emphasise mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in domestic affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence.

The movement had its origins in the 1947 Asian Relations Meeting in New Delhi and the 1955 Asian-African Conference in Bandung, Indonesia. India also participated in the 1961 Belgrade Conference that officially established the Nonaligned Movement. India used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the Third World in multilateral organizations as the United Nations (UN). However, the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation that was signed between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s, tarnished India’s image as a nonaligned nation. Additionally, due to conflict within members such as Iran and Iraq and Pakistan and India, there was little cohesion within the movement. [[The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]] also served to fracture the movement as some members supported the Soviet Union, while others did not. Since the end of the Cold war, the non aligned movement has struggled to find relevance and has had to redefine itself. It now focuses more on the socio-economic challenges facing member states and has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security. It also opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs, and aggressive unilateral measures.

Non Aligned Movement

2010-06-25T06:39:07Z

Webmaster: /* Non Aligned Movement */

== Non Aligned Movement ==

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an intergovernmental organization of states that consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. Most of the countries that are part of the movement were former colonies that liberated themselves from foreign domination. After independence most found themselves in an international situation dominated by Cold War alliances and the movement was formed primarily to ensure ‘the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries.’ [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was one of the founders of the Non Aligned Movement and formulated its principles with the goal of preserving India's freedom of action internationally, through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union. The principles of the movement are based on the Panchsheel agreement, signed between India and China in 1954 and emphasise mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in domestic affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence.

The movement had its origins in the 1947 Asian Relations Meeting in New Delhi and the 1955 Asian-African Conference in Bandung, Indonesia. India also participated in the 1961 Belgrade Conference that officially established the Nonaligned Movement. India used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the Third World in multilateral organizations as the United Nations (UN). However, the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation that was signed between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s, tarnished India’s image as a nonaligned nation. Additionally, due to conflict within members such as Iran and Iraq and Pakistan and India, there was little cohesion within the movement. [[The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] also served to fracture the movement as some members supported the Soviet Union, while others did not. Since the end of the Cold war, the non aligned movement has struggled to find relevance and has had to redefine itself. It now focuses more on the socio-economic challenges facing member states and has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security. It also opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs, and aggressive unilateral measures.

Non Aligned Movement

2010-06-25T06:38:01Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Non Aligned Movement == The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an intergovernmental organization of states that consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major …'

== Non Aligned Movement ==

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an intergovernmental organization of states that consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. Most of the countries that are part of the movement were former colonies that liberated themselves from foreign domination. After independence most found themselves in an international situation dominated by Cold War alliances and the movement was formed primarily to ensure ‘the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries.’ [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was one of the founders of the Non Aligned Movement and formulated its principles with the goal of preserving India's freedom of action internationally, through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union. The principles of the movement are based on the Panchsheel agreement, signed between India and China in 1954 and emphasise mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in domestic affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence.

The movement had its origins in the 1947 Asian Relations Meeting in New Delhi and the 1955 Asian-African Conference in Bandung, Indonesia. India also participated in the 1961 Belgrade Conference that officially established the Nonaligned Movement. India used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the Third World in multilateral organizations as the United Nations (UN). However, the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation that was signed between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s, tarnished India’s image as a nonaligned nation. Additionally, due to conflict within members such as Iran and Iraq and Pakistan and India, there was little cohesion within the movement. The [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] also served to fracture the movement as some members supported the Soviet Union, while others did not. Since the end of the Cold war, the non aligned movement has struggled to find relevance and has had to redefine itself. It now focuses more on the socio-economic challenges facing member states and has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security. It also opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs, and aggressive unilateral measures.

SAARC

2010-06-25T06:32:10Z

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== SAARC ==

The SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is an economic and political organisation that was established in December 1985. It has eight members- India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Pakistan and recently Afghanistan. It aims to promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life through accelerated economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region. Cooperation in the SAARC is based on respect for the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non interference in internal affairs of the member States Decisions are taken on the basis of unanimity. Bilateral and contentious issues such as [[Kashmir]] or the Sri Lankan civil war are excluded from the deliberations of SAARC. However, during the 13th summit, emphasis was laid on greater cooperation between members to fight terrorism.
Over the years, members have expressed unwillingness to sign free trade agreements due to political and economic concerns. However, the Agreement on the South Asian Free Trade Area was finally reached at the 12th SAARC summit at Islamabad, Pakistan on 6 January 2004. It creates a framework for the creation of a free trade area covering 1.4 billion people in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and the Maldives. [[China]] has expressed desire to join SAARC, though India is against this as its membership will undermine India’s presence.
SAARC has come under criticism for not doing enough to promote economic integration. Also SAARC’s relevance, especially for India has been criticised The growing India-[[ASEAN]] economic linkages, the improved bilateral [[India-Myanmar]] and India-Thai relations as a result of India’s look east policy, and the continued stagnation in India’s relations with both Pakistan and Bangladesh are some of reasons SAARC’s relevance for India has been questioned. Matters of national security and domestic problems of the member nations hinder the promotion of the region’s development.

SAARC

2010-06-25T06:30:49Z

Webmaster: Created page with 'SAARC The SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is an economic and political organisation that was established in December 1985. It has eight members- India, S…'

SAARC
The SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is an economic and political organisation that was established in December 1985. It has eight members- India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Pakistan and recently Afghanistan. It aims to promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life through accelerated economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region. Cooperation in the SAARC is based on respect for the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non interference in internal affairs of the member States Decisions are taken on the basis of unanimity. Bilateral and contentious issues such as [[Kashmir]] or the Sri Lankan civil war are excluded from the deliberations of SAARC. However, during the 13th summit, emphasis was laid on greater cooperation between members to fight terrorism.
Over the years, members have expressed unwillingness to sign free trade agreements due to political and economic concerns. However, the Agreement on the South Asian Free Trade Area was finally reached at the 12th SAARC summit at Islamabad, Pakistan on 6 January 2004. It creates a framework for the creation of a free trade area covering 1.4 billion people in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and the Maldives. [[China]] has expressed desire to join SAARC, though India is against this as its membership will undermine India’s presence.
SAARC has come under criticism for not doing enough to promote economic integration. Also SAARC’s relevance, especially for India has been criticised The growing India-[[ASEAN]] economic linkages, the improved bilateral [[India-Myanmar]] and India-Thai relations as a result of India’s look east policy, and the continued stagnation in India’s relations with both Pakistan and Bangladesh are some of reasons SAARC’s relevance for India has been questioned. Matters of national security and domestic problems of the member nations hinder the promotion of the region’s development.

Kargil conflict

2010-06-25T06:26:48Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Kargil Conflict == The Kargil conflict started when it was revealed that Pakistani insurgents had infiltrated Indian administered Kashmir shortly after the Lahore summit. Con…'

== Kargil Conflict ==

The Kargil conflict started when it was revealed that Pakistani insurgents had infiltrated Indian administered Kashmir shortly after the Lahore summit. Consequently, Indian troops were deployed to evict the insurgents and recapture Indian Territory. The conflict lasted two months, during which many lives were taken. Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces.
The Kargil Conflict strained relations between India and Pakistan. Pakistan’s violation of the line of control was condemned by the U.S.A as well as by many other countries and organisations such as the [[G8]] nations and the European Union. China, a long-time ally of Pakistan, insisted that Pakistan pull out forces to the pre-conflict positions along the LoC and resolve border issues peacefully. After the Kargil conflict the fact that General [[Pervez Musharraf]] overthrew then Prime Minister Sharif, only exacerbated doubts over the future of the relations between the two nations.

Détente

2010-06-25T06:19:16Z

Webmaster: /* Détente */

== Détente ==

The Détente refers to the general easing of relations between the [[Soviet Union]] and the United States during the Cold war. Prior to Détente the world was becoming more hostile. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the possibility of a nuclear war was highly probable. Therefore, both the Soviets and the Americans decided that they needed to begin reducing tensions and severe anti- nuclear movements supported the détente. For example, in 1963, the Soviets and Americans signed the Partial Test Ban treaty which prohibited all test detonations except ones underground. The Sino- Soviet split also contributed to the détente. During the 1960s the Sino-Soviet ideological dispute deepened and spread to include territorial issues, culminating in 1969 in bloody armed clashes on their border. The Sino-Soviet dispute was also intensified by increasing competition between Beijing and Moscow for influence in the Third World and the international communist movement. [[China]] broke of ties with the Soviet Union in 1966. The Soviet Union therefore had reason to fear a Sino- American alliance and so had incentive to improve relations with the U.S. Also, Brezhnev, the leader of the Soviet Union at the time felt that the nuclear arms race was unsustainable for the economy. The Vietnam War was also a drain for the U.S economy as it was helping South Vietnam fight North South Vietnam. In 1969, when Nixon came to power, and implemented his policy of ‘Vietnamization’ which was a plan to steadily decrease the number of American troops in Vietnam, while training south Vietnamese troops at the same time. U.S policy had changed from one of containment to one of détente or cooperation.
The manifestations of the détente were a number of summits held between the leaders and treaties signed between them in the 1970s. [[Nuclear NPT]] was signed in 1970. The treaty aims to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and encourage disarmament and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. The SALT I treaty that limited each power's nuclear arsenals was signed in 1972. In the same year the Biological Weapons Convention and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were also concluded. Talks on SALT II also began in 1972. These treaties aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties especially through increase in trade.
It was hoped that the new relationship would herald a permanent improvement in relations between the U.S. and Soviet Union. However, an increasing number of conflicts weakened the détente and it officially ended with the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in 1979.

Détente

2010-06-25T06:18:30Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Détente == The Détente refers to the general easing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold war. Prior to Détente the world was be…'

== Détente ==

The Détente refers to the general easing of relations between the [[Soviet Union]] and the United States during the Cold war. Prior to Détente the world was becoming more hostile. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the possibility of a nuclear war was highly probable. Therefore, both the Soviets and the Americans decided that they needed to begin reducing tensions and severe anti- nuclear movements supported the détente. For example, in 1963, the Soviets and Americans signed the Partial Test Ban treaty which prohibited all test detonations except ones underground. The Sino- Soviet split also contributed to the détente. During the 1960s the Sino-Soviet ideological dispute deepened and spread to include territorial issues, culminating in 1969 in bloody armed clashes on their border. The Sino-Soviet dispute was also intensified by increasing competition between Beijing and Moscow for influence in the Third World and the international communist movement. [[China]] broke of ties with the Soviet Union in 1966. The Soviet Union therefore had reason to fear a Sino- American alliance and so had incentive to improve relations with the U.S. Also, Brezhnev, the leader of the Soviet Union at the time felt that the nuclear arms race was unsustainable for the economy. The Vietnam War was also a drain for the U.S economy as it was helping South Vietnam fight North South Vietnam. In 1969, when Nixon came to power, and implemented his policy of ‘Vietnamization’ which was a plan to steadily decrease the number of American troops in Vietnam, while training south Vietnamese troops at the same time. U.S policy had changed from one of containment to one of détente or cooperation.
The manifestations of the détente were a number of summits held between the leaders and treaties signed between them in the 1970s. [[Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty]] was signed in 1970. The treaty aims to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and encourage disarmament and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. The SALT I treaty that limited each power's nuclear arsenals was signed in 1972. In the same year the Biological Weapons Convention and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were also concluded. Talks on SALT II also began in 1972. These treaties aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles. Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties especially through increase in trade.
It was hoped that the new relationship would herald a permanent improvement in relations between the U.S. and Soviet Union. However, an increasing number of conflicts weakened the détente and it officially ended with the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in 1979.

Article 370

2010-06-25T06:05:54Z

Webmaster: /* Article 370 */

== Article 370 ==
After Independence in 1947, all the princely states were asked to accede to either India or Pakistam. Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir chose to remain independent because he did not know which nation to accede to as he was a Hindu ruler, even though majority of Kashmir is Muslim.

However when Pashtun tribes from the North West Frontier Province in Pakistan invaded the region, the Maharaja then appealed to Lord Mountbatten, the then Governor General of India for assistance. He was only offered assistance if he agreed to accede to India. This is a point of contention between Pakistan and India as they disagree over whether he acceded under the right circumstances. Once the papers of accession were signed Indian soldiers entered Jammu & Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation. However they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Following the signing of the Instrument of Accession, Maharaja Hari Singh wanted Sheikh Abdullah to function as the Head of the Emergency Government. A political arrangement was worked out with [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the result of which was Article 370. Article 370 was enacted into the constitution and justified as the only mechanism to fasten & integrate Kashmir with India. Subsequently, in 1951, a Constituent Assembly for J&K was elected and the Assembly framed a constitution. Under the J&K Constitution, the state had a separate Prime Minister, a separate President a separate flag and a separate constitution.

Article 370 gives the state of [[Kashmir]] special status. It specifies that except for Defence, Foreign Affairs, Finance and Communications, the Indian Parliament needs the State Government's agreement for applying all other laws. The state's residents lived under a separate set of laws, including those related to citizenship, ownership of property, and fundamental rights, as compared to other Indians.

Article 370 is the subject of much debate. It was supposed to be a temporary provision but was prolonged according to the 1974 Indira- Sheikh accord that committed itself to keeping the relationship between India and Kashmir within the ambit of this article. Some Muslim Kashmiris demand greater autonomy and sovereignty and some even demand independence from India, while some non-Muslims would like to see the state fully integrated into India. [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) also opposes this article. The BJP affirms unequivocally India's sovereignty over the whole of Jammu and Kashmir, including the areas under foreign occupations. The Congress party of India also uses Article 370 to secure votes in Kashmir. The issue of the accession of the state is still a matter of dispute between India and Pakistan and is still on the U.N Security Council’s agenda.

Article 370

2010-06-25T06:00:14Z

Webmaster: /* Article 370 */

== Article 370 ==
After Independence in 1947, all the princely states were asked to accede to either India or Pakistam. Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir chose to remain independent because he did not know which nation to accede to as he was a Hindu ruler, even though majority of Kashmir is Muslim.

However when Pashtun tribes from the North West Frontier Province in Pakistan invaded the region, the Maharaja then appealed to Lord Mountbatten, the then Governor General of India for assistance. He was only offered assistance if he agreed to accede to India. This is a point of contention between Pakistan and India as they disagree over whether he acceded under the right circumstances. Once the papers of accession were signed Indian soldiers entered Jammu & Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation. However they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Following the signing of the Instrument of Accession, Maharaja Hari Singh wanted Sheikh Abdullah to function as the Head of the Emergency Government. A political arrangement was worked out with [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the result of which was Article 370. Article 370 was enacted into the constitution and justified as the only mechanism to fasten & integrate Kashmir with India. Subsequently, in 1951, a Constituent Assembly for J&K was elected and the Assembly framed a constitution. Under the J&K Constitution, the state had a separate Prime Minister, a separate President a separate flag and a separate constitution.

Article 370 gives the state of [[Kashmir]] special status. It specifies that except for Defence, Foreign Affairs, Finance and Communications, the Indian Parliament needs the State Government's agreement for applying all other laws. The state's residents lived under a separate set of laws, including those related to citizenship, ownership of property, and fundamental rights, as compared to other Indians.

Article 370 is the subject of much debate. It was supposed to be a temporary provision but was prolonged according to the 1974 Indira- Sheikh accord that committed itself to keeping the relationship between India and Kashmir within the ambit of this article. Some Muslim Kashmiris demand greater autonomy and sovereignty and some even demand independence from India, while some non-Muslims would like to see the state fully integrated into India. [[The Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) also opposes this article. The BJP affirms unequivocally India's sovereignty over the whole of Jammu and Kashmir, including the areas under foreign occupations. The Congress party of India also uses Article 370 to secure votes in Kashmir. The issue of the accession of the state is still a matter of dispute between India and Pakistan and is still on the U.N Security Council’s agenda.

Article 370

2010-06-25T05:55:28Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Article 370 == After Independence in 1947, all the princely states were asked to accede to either India or Pakistam. Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir chose to remain…'

== Article 370 ==

After Independence in 1947, all the princely states were asked to accede to either India or Pakistam. Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir chose to remain independent because he did not know which nation to accede to as he was a Hindu ruler, even though majority of Kashmir is Muslim.
However when Pashtun tribes from the North West Frontier Province in Pakistan invaded the region, the Maharaja then appealed to Lord Mountbatten, the then Governor General of India for assistance. He was only offered assistance if he agreed to accede to India. This is a point of contention between Pakistan and India as they disagree over whether he acceded under the right circumstances. Once the papers of accession were signed Indian soldiers entered Jammu & Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation. However they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Following the signing of the Instrument of Accession, Maharaja Hari Singh wanted Sheikh Abdullah to function as the Head of the Emergency Government. A political arrangement was worked out with [[Sheikh Abdullah]], the result of which was Article 370. Article 370 was enacted into the constitution and justified as the only mechanism to fasten & integrate Kashmir with India. Subsequently, in 1951, a Constituent Assembly for J&K was elected and the Assembly framed a constitution. Under the J&K Constitution, the state had a separate Prime Minister, a separate President a separate flag and a separate constitution.
Article 370 gives the state of [[Kashmir]] special status. It specifies that except for Defence, Foreign Affairs, Finance and Communications, the Indian Parliament needs the State Government's agreement for applying all other laws. The state's residents lived under a separate set of laws, including those related to citizenship, ownership of property, and fundamental rights, as compared to other Indians.
Article 370 is the subject of much debate. It was supposed to be a temporary provision but was prolonged according to the 1974 Indira- Sheikh accord that committed itself to keeping the relationship between India and Kashmir within the ambit of this article. Some Muslim Kashmiris demand greater autonomy and sovereignty and some even demand independence from India, while some non-Muslims would like to see the state fully integrated into India. [[The Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) also opposes this article. The BJP affirms unequivocally India's sovereignty over the whole of Jammu and Kashmir, including the areas under foreign occupations. The Congress party of India also uses Article 370 to secure votes in Kashmir. The issue of the accession of the state is still a matter of dispute between India and Pakistan and is still on the U.N Security Council’s agenda.

Ayub Khan

2010-06-24T10:58:47Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Ayub Khan == Ayub Khan was the first military ruler of Pakistan, serving as the second President of Pakistan (1958-1969). He allied Pakistan with U.S military alliance agai…'

== Ayub Khan ==

Ayub Khan was the first military ruler of Pakistan, serving as the second President of Pakistan (1958-1969). He allied Pakistan with U.S military alliance against the Soviet Union. As a result, Pakistan received immense economic aid from Europe and America which lead to growth in the Pakistani economy.

Ayub maintained icy relations with India. He established close political and military ties with Communist China exploiting its differences with Soviet Russia and its 1962 war with India. China still remains a strong military, economic and political ally of Pakistan.

The turning point of his rule was the Indo- Pakistani war of 1965. At the end of the war, many Pakistanis perceived the that the performance of the military was good and therefore criticised Ayub Khan for signing the Tashkent Agreement which they believe negated the victory at the battlefield, with a defeat at the negotiating table. Ayub Khan’s right hand man, Zulfikar Bhutto also turned against him and launched his own party, the Pakistan People’s Party. The Awami league under Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman started propagating his rule as pro West Pakistan and claimed that his policies had snatched away the Bengali's rights. The rest of the political parties formed an alliance, the Democratic Action Committee, with an agenda to remove Ayub Khan's government. Public resentment reached a tipping point in 1968 and an anti – Ayub movement was launched by the urban middle class. Demonstrations and protests swept the country and the decreasing law and order forced Ayub Kahn to resign and hand over power to hand over power to the Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan Army, General Muhammad Yahya Khan.

Tashkent Agreement

2010-06-24T10:57:39Z

Webmaster: Created page with ' == Tashkent Agreement == The Tashkent Agreement was a peace agreement signed between India and Pakistan on 10 January, 1966 after the Indo- Pakistani war of 1965. The meeting …'

== Tashkent Agreement ==

The Tashkent Agreement was a peace agreement signed between India and Pakistan on 10 January, 1966 after the Indo- Pakistani war of 1965. The meeting was held in Tashkent in the Uzbek SSR, USSR (now Uzbekistan). The main aim of the meeting was to try and create a more permanent settlement between India and Pakistan. Premier Kosygin moderated the meeting between Indian Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani president Muhammad Ayub Khan. The declaration that was released stated that Indian and Pakistani forces would pull back to their pre-conflict positions, the nations would not interfere in each other’s internal affairs, economic and diplomatic relations would be restored and the two leaders would work towards building good relations between the two countries.

The agreement was severely criticised in Pakistan as well as in India. Pakistan thought it negated the perceived military victory with a defeat at the negotiating table. India did not receive it well because it did not contain a no war pact or any renunciation of guerrilla warfare in Kashmir.

The agreement was repudiated by Pakistan during the crisis between Indian and Pakistan in 1972.

Indian Parliament Attack

2010-06-24T10:55:58Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Indian Parliament Attack == The Indian Parliament attack was a high-profile attack by Lakshar-E-Toiba and Jaish-E-Mohammed terrorists in 2001, on the building that…'

== Indian Parliament Attack ==

The Indian Parliament attack was a high-profile attack by Lakshar-E-Toiba and Jaish-E-Mohammed terrorists in 2001, on the building that houses the Parliament of India in Delhi. The attack was one of the main causes of the 2001-2002, India Pakistan standoff. Five policemen, a Parliament security guard, were killed, and 18 others were injured. However, no members of the government were hurt. India accused LeT and JeM of being behind the attack, even though the LeT denied any such accusations. Four JeM members were put on trial and found guilty. Pakistan refused Indian demands to hand over those suspected by Delhi of masterminding the attack. Delhi said Pakistan intelligence services helped organise the attack, a charge vigorously denied by Islamabad, which said it provided only moral and diplomatic support to militants. India demanded that Pakistan stop the activities of LeT and JeM, that Pakistan apprehend the organisations' leaders and that Pakistan curb the financial assets and the groups’ access to these assets.

In response to the Indian government's statements, Pakistani forces were put on high alert. For India, the 13 December 2001 attack on Parliament was the last straw in a series of attacks over the previous two years. According to L.K Advani it was a declaration of war against the country, as it aimed at wiping out political leadership. On 20 December, India mobilised and deployed its troops to Kashmir and Punjab. Pakistan also moved large numbers of its troops to the Indian border. Tensions escalated and there was a possibility of a nuclear war. However, both governments managed to ease the situation. By October 2002, both India and Pakistan began to demobilise their troops along the border and by 2003, the two nations signed a cease fire.

Suez Crisis

2010-06-24T10:54:35Z

Webmaster: Created page with ' == Suez Crisis == The Suez crisis was a war fought by Britain, France and Israel against Egypt in 1956. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser who wanted to lead t…'

== Suez Crisis ==

The Suez crisis was a war fought by Britain, France and Israel against Egypt in 1956. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser who wanted to lead the Arab nationalist movement that was gaining popularity in the Arab world. He wanted to gain concessions fro his own country and did so by playing Western and Soviet powers against each other. Nasser signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia in October 1955; this angered and threatened US and Britain who withdrew aid for the building of the Aswan High dam. In response, Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal which was owned by British and French companies. This threatened their economic interests as the canal was important for trade. The war lasted for a week, and invading forces were withdrawn within the month. As a result, Egypt now firmly aligned itself with the Soviet Union, which armed Egypt and other Arab nations for the continuing struggle against Israel.
India’s relations with Egypt go back to relations between Mohandas Gandhi and Saad Zahgloul over their common goals for independence. India and Egypt became the founders of the Non-aligned movement in 1955. Nehru supported Egypt in the 1956 war and even threatened to withdraw India from the British Commonwealth.

After the war Nasser's standing in the Arab World improved, as did the support for pan Arabism. The crisis also hastened decolonisation, as the remaining colonies of both Britain and France gained independence over the next several years.

Shashi Tharoor

2010-06-24T10:53:07Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Shashi Tharoor == Tharoor is a member of the Indian Parliament from the Thiruvanthapuram constituency in Kerala. He studied at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at T…'

== Shashi Tharoor ==

Tharoor is a member of the Indian Parliament from the Thiruvanthapuram constituency in Kerala. He studied at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University where he acquired three degrees including a PhD. His career in the United Nations began in 1978 and in 1997 Tharoor was appointed Director of Communications and Special Projects and as Executive Assistant to the Secretary-General Kofi Annan. In January 2001, he was appointed as the Under-Secretary-General for Communications and Public Information, and as the head of Department of Public Information (UNDPI). In 2006, Tharoor was nominated by the Government of India for the post of UN Secretary General, but lost to Ban Ki Moon.

In March 2009, Shashi Tharoor contested the Indian General Elections as Congress party candidate from Thiruvanthapuram in Kerala. He went on to win defeating his nearest CPI rival P. Ramachandran Nair. Shashi Tharoor was selected as Minister of State in the Council of Ministers of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. On 28 May 2009 he was sworn in as the Indian Minister of State for External Affairs. He resigned from this post in April, 2010 on instructions by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, following allegations of corruption and misuse of office to get shares in the IPL cricket franchise of Cochin.

Nuclear NPT

2010-06-24T10:46:25Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty == The Nuclear Non Proliferation treaty aims to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and encourage disarmament and the rig…'

== Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty ==

The Nuclear Non Proliferation treaty aims to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons and encourage disarmament and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. It came into force on 5th March, 1970 and there are 189 states party to the treaty. The treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to extend the treaty indefinitely and without conditions during the Review Conference in 1995.

Each nuclear-weapons state undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or device. Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA (International Atomic energy Agency) for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons. All parties should participate in the exchange of scientific and technological information for the use of nuclear energy.

There are five states that are recognised as nuclear weapon states that are part of the treaty- The United States, France, United Kingdom, China and Russia (also members of the United Nations Security Council). There are four non parties to the treaty that are known to possess nuclear weapons- India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea.

India refused to sign the treaty because in India's view, the fact that the NPT has been extended may not be commensurate with India’s longer term strategic interests. The treaty permanently legitimizes the continued possession by nuclear weapon states of stockpiles and divides the countries into a group of nuclear ‘haves’ and a larger group of nuclear ‘have nots’ by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967. It does so without any binding commitment from these nations to strive for the goal that India and others share - the complete elimination of nuclear weapons. Also, one of the other reasons that India refused to sign the treaty is because China is one of the nuclear ‘haves.’ China exploded its first weapon in 1964, and India did so in 1974. The NPT went into effect between those dates. Also, under its terms, China became recognised as one of the world's five 'weapon states'. Instead of relinquishing even the minimal nuclear deterrent, India chose not to join the NPT, considering the perceived strategic challenges from China and Pakistan. International efforts to build a stronger non-proliferation regime had the effect of leaving India out. Australia for example, has recently refused to ship Uranium supplies to India because India is not a signatory of the NPT. As a result, India’s response is that of self-reliance and it continues its dual policy of maintaining a small nuclear deterrent while pursuing peaceful nuclear power on a large scale.

Liberation of Goa

2010-06-24T10:32:29Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== The Liberation of Goa, Operation Vijay == Goa was a Portuguese colony after the British left India. The Portuguese refused to give up their colonies in-spite of re…'

== The Liberation of Goa, Operation Vijay ==

Goa was a Portuguese colony after the British left India. The Portuguese refused to give up their colonies in-spite of repeated requests of the Indian Government. Even though the Portuguese assumed that India had renounced the use of force, both the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as well as the defence minister, Krishna Menon made it clear that India would resort to force, if all diplomatic efforts to make the Portuguese give up Goa failed. After years of negotiation in 1961, the government decided to deploy the armed forces to evict the Portugese out of Goa and other enclaves. Even though they faced a modest air threat from the Portugese, the Indian Air Force amassed a huge detachment and gave support to the massive ground force. The Indian armed action was codenamed Operation Vijay. The Goa operations gave the Indian Air Force an opportunity to employ jet air power on a massive scale for the first time. However the Portuguese did not have any enough defences to protect their positions.

Portuguese Governor, Manuel Anonia Vassalo De Silva, finally surrendered on December 19th and 3306 Portugese troops laid down their arms. They were then repatriated to Portugal after a few months. The other Portuguese colonies that were liberated were Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli.

Jayprakash Narayan

2010-06-24T10:30:57Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Jayprakash Narayan == Jayprakash Narayan was an Indian independence activist and political leader. He joined the Congress party after his education in the US and had close t…'

== Jayprakash Narayan ==

Jayprakash Narayan was an Indian independence activist and political leader. He joined the Congress party after his education in the US and had close ties with Nehru. Initially influenced by Marxism, he founded the Congress Socialist Party as an adjunct of the Congress in 1934 that aimed at elimination of exploitation and indebtedness of poor peasantry. He gradually came to dissociate himself from the communists who supported the British war effort and justified Stalinist excesses. He became more influenced by Gandhian philosophies, such as satyagraha and non violence as was seen when he fasted for sixteen days in protest against the ill treatment of prisoners in Deoli.

He is known for instigating the call for a movement called Total Revolution against Indira Gandhi in the 1970s. Indira Gandhi was found guilty of violating electoral laws by the Allahabad High Court. Narayan called for Indira to resign, and advocated Sampoorna kraanti [Total Revolution], a massive movement of pacifist noncooperation with the government.
Narayan called for the Prime Minister’s resignation asked the military and the police to disregard unconstitutional and immoral orders.
However, Indira Gandhi announced a state of Emergency on June 25th, 1975 and arrested Jayaprakash Narayan, opposition leaders and dissenting members of her own party. The Janata Party was formed under his guidance when Indira Gandhi revoked the Emergency in 1977. It was made up of the broad spectrum of anti Indira Gandhi opposition and was the first non Congress party to form a government at the centre. Though he never had a formal position within the government, he was still a leading political personality. He died in October 1979.

LTTE

2010-06-24T10:29:22Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== LTTE == The LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam) was founded in May 1976 by Vellupillai Prabhakaran in Sri Lanka which has a Sinhalese majority. The LTTE wan…'

== LTTE ==

The LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam) was founded in May 1976 by Vellupillai Prabhakaran in Sri Lanka which has a Sinhalese majority. The LTTE wanted to create Tamil Ealam, an independent state in the north and east of Sri Lanka as an ethnic homeland for the minority Tamils. The campaign was one of the longest running armed conflicts in Asia until the LTTE was defeated by the Sri Lankan Military in May 2009. The LTTE has been recognised as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries but are known to be supported by the Tamil Diaspora in Europe and North America and some Tamils in India.

India became involved in the conflict in the 1980s for a number of reasons, including its leaders' desire to project India as the regional power in the area and worries about India's own Tamils seeking independence and the flood of refugees. It first intervened by air dropping food parcels in Jaffna. It also signed the Indo-Sri Lanka accord which assigned a degree of regional autonomy in the Tamil areas, with the establishment of a regional council. Tamil militant groups were also required to lay down their arms and the Indian Peace Keeping Force(IPKF), part of the Indian Army, was sent to Sri Lanka to enforce disarmament and to watch over the regional council. Tamil militant groups did not have a role in the making of the agreement as it was signed between the Sri Lankan and Indian Government.

The LTTE rejected the accord because they opposed the candidate, who was to administer the regional council. The LTTE proposed three other candidates who India rejected. The LTTE then refused to hand over their weapons to the IPKF.

Soon the LTTE and the Indian army were engaged in a military conflict. The government of India decided that the IPKF should disarm the LTTE by force and launched a number of campaigns, including Operation Pawan, which attempted to capture Jaffna. The ruthlessness of the Indian intervention, made it extremely unpopular with not only the Tamils in Sri Lanka, but also with the Sinhalese population. The IPKF left the country in 1990, on the request of the Sri Lankan government. Fighting continued throughout the 1990s and Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was assassinated by a suicide bomber associated with the LTTE in 1991. In 1993 Sri Lankan president Ranasinghe Premadasa was also assassinated. Relations between India and Sri Lanka became sour due to the conflict.

In 2001, the LTTE dropped its demand for a separate state. Instead, it stated that a form of regional autonomy would meet its demands. The Sri Lankan Government agreed to the ceasefire. In March 2002, both sides signed an official Ceasefire Agreement (CFA). The LTTE boycotted the 2005 election and the increasing number of rifts between the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government caused a number of ceasefire violations in 2006. The government officially pulled out of the ceasefire agreement in January 2008 and President Mahinda Rajapaksa declared military victory over the Tamil Tigers on May 16, 2009 after 26 years of conflict.

Chinese Invasion of Tibet

2010-06-24T10:14:25Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== Chinese Invasion of Tibet == Tibet has existed as a region of separate sovereign areas, a single independent entity and as a vassal under Chinese suzerainty or …'

== Chinese Invasion of Tibet ==

Tibet has existed as a region of separate sovereign areas, a single independent entity and as a vassal under Chinese suzerainty or sovereignty. During some of this period, the Tibetan administration was subordinate to the Chinese empire of the Qing Dynasty. In 1913 the 13th Dalai Lama expelled Qing's representatives and troops from what is now the Tibet Autonomous Region. While the expulsion was seen as an assertion of Tibetan autonomy, Tibet's proclaimed independence was not accepted by the government of China. Mao Zedong, the Commander of the Liberation Army and the Chairman of the Communist Party of China viewed Tibet as an integral part of the Chinese State and launched an invasion in 1950.

The People’s Liberation Army defeated the Tibetan army at Chamdo on October 7, 1950. This marked the beginning of the campaign to integrate Tibet into China. The Communist party of China gained control of the region of Kham to the West of the Upper Yangtze River. The 14th Dalai Lama signed the Seventeen Point Agreement, affirming Chinese sovereignty over Tibet. In April 1954, India and the PRC signed an eight-year agreement on Tibet that set forth the basis of their relationship in the form of the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence.

Following the Tibetan uprising in 1959, the Dalai Lama, together with a group of Tibetan leaders fled to India and set up the Government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala. Beijing and the Government-in-exile disagree when Tibet became a part of China, and whether the incorporation into China of Tibet is legitimate according to international law. Disagreement and skirmishes over the disputed territory increased, particularly over the Aksai Chin area increased, ultimately leading to the Sino- Indian war in 1962.

Bharatiya Janata Party

2010-06-24T10:11:47Z

Webmaster: Created page with '== The Bharatiya Janata Party == The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is a major political party in India that was founded in 1980. The party is associated with Hindu n…'

== The Bharatiya Janata Party ==

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is a major political party in India that was founded in 1980. The party is associated with Hindu nationalism and advocates conservative social policies, self-reliance, free market economics, foreign policy driven by a nationalist agenda, and strong national defence. The BJP, in alliance with several other parties, was in power from 1998 to 2004, with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as the Prime Minister and Lal Krishna Advani as his deputy. It is the biggest constituent of the National Democratic Alliance which is currently in the opposition.

The BJP opposes Article 370 of the constitution which gives the state of Jammu and Kashmir special status. The article specifies that except for Defence, Foreign Affairs, Finance and Communications, the Indian Parliament needs the State Government's agreement for applying all other laws. The state's residents lived under a separate set of laws, including those related to citizenship, ownership of property, and fundamental rights, as compared to other Indians. The BJP affirms unequivocally India's sovereignty over the whole of Jammu and Kashmir, including the areas under foreign occupations. The NDA, led by the BJP were responsible for the Prevention of Terrorist Activities act, which provided the legal framework to strengthen administrative rights to fight terrorism and the strengthening of the National Investigative Agency. The Congress repealed this act in 2004 due to evidence that it had been grossly abused. The NDA also signed the South Asia Free Trade Agreement with Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives in 2004. The BJP also proposes that every citizen have a National identity card as it will strengthen national security by ensuring accurate citizen identity, thereby tracking illegal immigration.

The BJP has been involved in many controversies- one of which is the 2002 communal riots in Gujarat where it is said that Chief Minister Narendra Modi helped the Hindu mobs. Also, the party has been criticized for its involvement in the Ram Janmabhoomi movement which culminated in the destruction of the Babri Masjid in favor of building the Ram Janmabhoomi temple

Hindi Chini Bhai-Bhai

2010-06-24T10:01:11Z

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== Hindi- Chini Bhai Bhai ==

Hindi- Chini Bhai-bhai, which in Hindi means Indians and Chinese are brothers, was the catch phrase for India- China diplomacy in the 1950s. The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949 and the Chinese army invaded Tibet as Mao thought that it was an integral part of the Chinese State.

China saw Indian concern over Tibet as interference in the affairs of China. The PRC wanted to reassert control over Tibet and end feudalism and Lamaism. To avoid antagonizing the People's Republic of China, Nehru informed Chinese leaders that India did not have political or territorial ambitions in Tibet. However it maintained that traditional trading rights must continue. With Indian support, Tibetan delegates signed an agreement in May 1951 which recognised the sovereignty of the PRC. Tibet had been a geographical and physical buffer zone. With the invasion of Tibet by China, Nehru concluded that India’s best guarantee of security was to establish a ‘psychological’ buffer zone in the place of the physical buffer. In 1954 India and China signed an eight year agreement on Tibet which was known as the Panchsheela or the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence. It emphasised the mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual no aggression, mutual non interference, equality and peaceful co-existence. Up until 1959, despite border skirmishes and discrepancies between Indian and Chinese maps, Chinese leaders had assured India that there was no territorial controversy on the border even though there is some evidence that India avoided bringing up the border issue in high level meetings.

Following the Tibetan uprising in 1959, the Dalai Lama, together with a group of Tibetan leaders fled to India and set up the Government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala. Beijing and the Government-in-exile disagree when Tibet became a part of China, and whether the incorporation into China of Tibet is legitimate according to international law. Disagreement and skirmishes over the disputed territory increased, particularly over the Aksai Chin area, ultimately leading to the Sino- Indian war in 1962.